WHO WAS JULIUS CAESAR?

Gaius Julius Caesar July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC was a Roman general and statesman, and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. He also greatly extended the Roman empire before seizing power and making himself dictator of Rome, paving the way for the imperial system.

Julius Caesar was born in Rome on 12 or 13 July 100 BC into the prestigious Julian clan. 

His family were closely connected with the Marian faction in Roman politics. Caesar himself progressed within the Roman political system, becoming in succession quaestor (69 BC), aedile (65 BC) and praetor (62 BC). In 61-60 BC he served as governor of the Roman province of Spain.

Back in Rome in 60 BC, Caesar made a pact with Pompey and Crassus, who helped him to get elected as consul for 59 BC. 

The following year he was appointed governor of Roman Gaul where he stayed for eight years, adding the whole of modern France and Belgium to the Roman empire, and making Rome safe from the possibility of Gallic invasions. He made two expeditions to Britain, in 55 BC and 54 BC.

Julius Caesar, in his famous account of the Gallic Wars of the 50s BC, provided readers at home with a blood-curdling description of the Germanic tribes he encountered in battle:

'...The various tribes regard it as their greatest glory to lay waste as much as possible of the land around them and to keep it uninhabited. They hold it a proof of a people's valour to drive their neighbours from their homes, so that no-one dare settle near them. No discredit attaches to plundering raids outside tribal frontiers. The Germans say that they serve to keep young men in training and prevent them from getting lazy...'

Caesar then returned to Italy, disregarding the authority of the senate and famously crossing the Rubicon river without disbanding his army. In the ensuing civil war Caesar defeated the republican forces. 

Pompey fled to the Egyptian capital Alexandria, where he was murdered on the orders of Ptolemy.

Caesar followed and he and Cleopatra became lovers. Cleopatra, who had been exiled by her brother, was reinstalled as queen with Roman military support. Ptolemy was killed in the fighting and another brother was created Ptolemy XIII. 

In 47 BC, Cleopatra bore Caesar a child - Caesarion - though Caesar never publicly acknowledged him as his son. Cleopatra followed Caesar back to Rome where he made himself consul and dictator and therefore master of Rome.

He used his power to carry out much-needed reform, relieving debt, enlarging the senate, building the Forum Iulium and revising the calendar. 

Dictatorship was always regarded a temporary position but in 44 BC, Caesar took it for life. 

His success and ambition alienated strongly republican senators. A group of these, led by Cassius and Brutus, assassinated Caesar on the Ides of March 44 BC.



 This sparked the final round of civil wars that ended the Republic and brought about the elevation of Caesar's great nephew and designated heir, Octavian, as Augustus, the first emperor.


Based on an article from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/caesar_julius.shtml
Images care of http://juliuscaesarsjohnson1.blogspot.co.uk/ and http://www.cosmiq.de/qa/show/450507/warum-waren-caesars-letzte-worte-auch-du-brutus-der-legende-nach-in-griechisch-und-nicht-latein/ and http://thedorkfishexpress.blogspot.co.uk/2012/04/all-roads-lead-to-chicago.html

ATHENS: The Acropolis

Looming in quiet splendour over modern Athens is the awe inspiring Acropolis. Best known for housing the iconic Parthenon, it is also home to another mysterious and beautiful temple - the Erechtheum. The Erechtheun was completed in 406 BC, reputedly on the spot where Athena and Poseidon battled for control over Athens. The Parthenon however, was begun earlier in 447 BC, but completed an incredibly short 9 years later in 438BC. However, decorations of the Parthenon continued until 432 BC.

It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered the culmination of the development of the Doric order.

While its decorative sculptures are still considered some of the high points of Greek art,  the Parthenon itself is regarded as an enduring symbol of Ancient Greece and of Athenian democracy. It is also considered to be one of the world's greatest cultural monuments.

The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently carrying out a program of selective restoration and reconstruction to ensure the stability of the partially ruined structure, which you can see in the above video clip.

The Parthenon itself replaced an older temple of Athena, which historians call the Pre-Parthenon or Older Parthenon, that was destroyed in the Persian invasion of 480 BC. The temple is archaeoastronomically aligned to the Pleiades. Like most Greek temples, the Parthenon was used as a treasury. For a time, it served as the treasury of the Delian League, which later became the Athenian Empire. In the 5th century AD, the Parthenon was converted into a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary. After the Ottoman Turk conquest, it was turned into a mosque in the early 1460s, and it had a minaret built in it.

In 1687, the Parthenon suffered its greatest blow when the Venetians under Francesco Morosini attacked Athens, and the Ottoman Turks fortified the Acropolis and used the building as a gunpowder magazine.

On 26 September a Venetian mortar, fired from the Hill of Philopappus, blew the magazine up and the building was partly destroyed. Morosini then proceeded to attempt to loot sculptures from the ruin.

The internal structures were demolished, whatever was left of the roof collapsed, and some of the pillars, particularly on the southern side, were decapitated. The sculptures suffered heavily. Many fell to the ground, and souvenirs were later made from their pieces. Consequently some sections of the sculptural decoration are known only from the drawings made by Flemish artist Jacques Carrey in 1674. After this, much of the building fell into disuse and a smaller mosque was erected.

In 1806, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin removed some of the surviving sculptures, with the Ottoman Turks' permission. These sculptures, now known as the Elgin Marbles or the Parthenon Marbles, were sold in 1816 to the British Museum in London, where they are now displayed. A few sculptures from the Parthenon are also in the Louvre in Paris, in Copenhagen, and elsewhere, but over fifty percent are in the Acropolis Museum in Athens.

There exists a well publicised dispute around the Parthenon Marbles which were removed by the Earl of Elgin, which are now houses in the British Museum.

While a few Parthenon marbles can still be seen on the building itself, the Greek government has campaigned since 1983 for the British Museum to return these sculptures back to Greece.

However, the British Museum has steadfastly refused to return the sculptures, and successive British governments have been unwilling to force the Museum to do so partly because this would require significant legislation. Nevertheless, talks between senior representatives from Greek and British cultural ministries, and their legal advisers took place in London on 4 May 2007. These were the first serious negotiations for several years, and there were hopes that the two sides may move a step closer to a resolution.

In 1975, the Greek government began a concerted effort to restore the Parthenon and other Acropolis structures. After some delay a Committee for the Conservation of the Acropolis Monuments was established in 1983. The project later attracted funding and technical assistance from the European Union.

An archaeological committee thoroughly documented every artifact remaining on the site, and architects assisted with computer models to determine their original locations. Particularly important and fragile sculptures were transferred to the Acropolis Museum. A crane was installed for moving marble blocks which was also designed to fold away beneath the roofline when not in use. In some cases, prior re-construction was found to be incorrect, but these were dismantled, and a careful process of re-restoration began. Originally, various blocks were held together by elongated iron H pins that were completely coated in lead, which protected the iron from rusting. Stabilizing pins added in the 19th century were not so coated, and therefore rusted. Since rust expands, the expansion caused further damage by cracking the marble. Fortunately, all new metalwork now uses titanium, a strong, light, and corrosion resistant material.

The Parthenon will not be restored to a pre-1687 state, but the explosion damage will be mitigated as much as possible. This will be achieved by restoring the structural integrity of the edifice (important in this earthquake-prone region) and to restore the aesthetic integrity by filling in chipped sections of column drums and lintels, using precisely sculpted marble cemented in place. New Pentelic marble is being used from the original quarry. Ultimately, almost all major pieces of marble will be placed in the structure where they originally would have been, supported as needed by modern materials. While the repairs initially show as white against the weathered tan of original surfaces, they will become less prominent as they age.

The Erechtheun

The Erechtheun was completed in 406 BC, reputedly on the spot where Athena and Poseidon battled for control over Athens. The structure actually unites two separate temples. 

First the east porch which once sheltered an olive wood statue of Athena, while the second is the west porch which held a statue of Poseidon. 

Of course, the most famous feature of the Erechtheun is the south porch which is held up by six columns in the shape of voluptuous, drapery-clad maidens.

These beautifully carved stone maidens are collectively known as the Caryatids, possibly named after the woman of Caryae, who were famed for their beauty and served as Athenien slaves. 

It was probably for this reason alone that inspired the Ottoman commanders to convert the Erechtheum temple into a hareem during their occupation!

Although the six Caryatids are of the same height, build, and similarly attired and coiffed, they are in fact are not the same. 

Their faces, stance, draping, and hair have all been carved uniquely. The three on the left stand on their right knee, while the three on the right stand on their left knee.

And if you were wondering why they have such large 'French plaits', it is because their bulky, intricately arranged hairstyles serve the crucial purpose of providing static support to their necks. Otherwise this section of the statue be the thinnest and therefore structurally weak.

Unfortunately, the six Caryatids the you see on the south porch today are only copies, but the originals still exist. Five are being restored while on display at the new Acropolis Museum, while the sixth was removed by Lord Elgin in the early 19th century and is currently housed in the British Museum in London.

The Acropolis housed Caryatids currently stand on a special balcony that allows visitors to view them from all sides. 

The pedestal for the Caryatid that was removed to London remains empty.

The Romans also copied the Erechtheion caryatids, installing copies in the Forum of Augustus and the Pantheon in Rome, and at Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli.

Photos care of http://traumwerk.stanford.edu:3455/94/310 and http://cidc.library.cornell.edu/adw/Gallery/wjscaryatids.htmhttp://intelligenttravel.nationalgeographic.com/2009/06/24/new_acropolis_museum/
and http://www.platos-academy.com/archives/parthenon.html and http://bloomsburybytes.wordpress.com/2011/04/27/caryatids-the-elgin-marbles/ and http://www.ribajournal.com/blog/entry/its_all_greek_to_me/

ROME: The Pantheon

When you think of Rome, images of the Colosseum, and the Vatican come to mind. As old as these buildings may be, the oldest surviving Roman building that is still in use today is the Pantheon. Named from the Greek meaning 'to every god', it was commissioned by Marcus Agrippa as a temple to all the gods of Ancient Rome, and rebuilt by Emperor Hadrian in about 126 AD.

At the top of the dome is a large opening, known as the oculus, which was the only source of light.

The front portico has three rows of 8 columns, each one with a diameter of 1.5m. Amazingly, each of these monolithic columns is cut from a single piece of marble.

The history of the Pantheon

The construction of the Pantheon was part of a program of construction that was undertaken by Augustus Caesar and his supporters. Together, they built more than twenty structures on the Campus Martius, including the Baths of Agrippa and the Saepta Julia.

It had long been thought that the current building was built by Agrippa, with later alterations undertaken, and this was in part because of the inscription on the front of the temple.

The inscription across the front of the Pantheon says: 

M·AGRIPPA·L·F·COS·TERTIVM·FECIT 

or in full,

"M[arcus] Agrippa L[ucii] f[ilius] co[n] s[ul] tertium fecit," 

meaning "Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, made this building when consul for the third time."

However, archaeological excavations have shown that the Pantheon of Agrippa had been completely destroyed except for the facade, and Emperor Hadrian was responsible for rebuilding the Pantheon on the site of Agrippa's original temple.

The Interior

Originally a temple for all pagan gods, the temple was converted into a church in 609.

The Pantheon now contains the tombs of the famous artist Raphael and of several Italian Kings.

Its ecclasiastic interior design contrast with the temple's structural design.

However, the marble floor - which features a design consisting of a series of geometric patterns - is still the ancient Roman original. 

Probably one of the most fascinating features of the Pantheon is the Architecture. The structure of the Pantheon is comprised of a series of intersecting arches. The arches rest on eight piers which support eight round-headed arches which run through the drum from its inner to its outer face. 

The arches correspond to the eight bays on the floor level that house statues. The dome itself is supported by a series of arches that run horizontally round. Romans had perfected the use of arches which helped sustain the weight of their magnanimous buildings.

The Rotunda

The rotunda is perhaps the most striking element of the pantheons architecture. In fact it was the largest dome in the world until 1436 when the Florence Cathedral was constructed.


The thickness of the dome varies from 6.4 metres (21 ft) at the base of the dome to 1.2 metres (3.9 ft) around the oculus.

The stresses in the dome were found to be substantially reduced by the use of successively less dense aggregate stones, such as small pots or pieces of pumice, in higher layers of the dome.

Hidden chambers engineered within the rotunda form a sophisticated honeycomb structure. 

This reduced the weight of the roof, as did the elimination of the apex by means of the oculus. The top of the rotunda wall features a series of brick relieving arches, visible on the outside and built into the mass of the brickwork. 

The Pantheon is full of such devices – for example, there are relieving arches over the recesses inside – but all these arches were hidden by marble facing on the interior and possibly by stone revetment or stucco on the exterior.

The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, 43.3 metres (142 ft), so the whole interior would fit exactly within a cube.

These dimensions make more sense when expressed in ancient Roman units of measurement: 

The dome spans 150 Roman feet; the oculus is 30 Roman feet in diameter; the doorway is 40 Roman feet high.

The Pantheon still holds the record for the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome. It is also substantially larger than earlier domes. Though often drawn as a free-standing building, there was a building at its rear into which it abutted. While this building helped buttress the rotunda, there was no interior passage from one to the other.

Based on an article from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome and http://www.aviewoncities.com/rome/pantheon.htm
Photos are from my Roman holiday 2011 and http://scienceman2008.blogspot.co.uk/

ROME: The Colosseum

Even in today’s world of high rise skyscrapers, the Roman Colosseum remains hugely impressive. While almost two thirds of the original building had been destroyed by earthquakes, fires, or plundered for its once glistening stone by Roman Popes and aristocrats, it still stands as a glorious but troubling monument to Roman imperial power and cruelty.

Inside the Roman Colosseum, and on top of the subterranean ranks of arches and columns, Romans for centuries cold-bloodedly killed thousands of people.

These would have included Christian martyrs, anyone who they regarded as a criminal, and their coveted professional fighters - the gladiators.

The Roman Colosseum was born in the aftermath of Nero's extravagance and the rebellion by the Jews in Palestine against Roman rule.

Nero, after the great fire at Rome in AD 64, had built a huge pleasure palace for himself (the Golden House) right in the centre of the city. In AD 68, faced with military uprisings, he committed suicide, and the empire was engulfed in civil wars.

The eventual winner of these civil wars was Vespasian (emperor AD 69-79), and it was his idea to shore up his shaky regime by building an amphitheatre - or pleasure palace for the people - out of the booty from the Jewish War - on the site of the lake in the gardens of Nero's palace.

Known then as the Vespasian amphitheatre, the Colosseum was a grand political gesture.

Suitably for that great city, it was - and eventually remained - the largest amphitheatre in the whole of the Roman Empire.

In its day, the Colosseum was capable of seating 50,000 spectators.

Besides gladiatorial contests, the Colosseum was also used for such public spectacles as mock sea battles, animal hunts, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology.

The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era, but it was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and rather surprisingly, a Christian shrine.

Indeed, it was very possible that the Colosseum would have disappeared altogether were it not for the amphitheatre's reputation as a Christian sacred ground.

Even so, the cathedrals of St Peter and St John Lateran, the Palazzo Venezia and the Tiber's river defences all exploited the Colosseum as a convenient quarry.

In the 21st century the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome as well as one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions.

It still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum

Eventually there were well over 250 amphitheatres in the Roman empire - so it is no surprise that the amphitheatre and its associated shows are still the quintessential symbols of Roman culture.

Based on an article by http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colosseum
Images by http://www.legionxxiv.org/colosseum/ and http://fineartamerica.com/featured/colosseum-cross-section-granger.html roman coliseum, the roman coliseum